Insert Faith Here
by Joseph Russo
Puritans in New England date back to the early 1600s with the arrival of the Pilgrims. Upon arrival, John Winthrop gave a speech explaining their importance as colonists, as their setting up a new society was a mission from God. When one thinks of the Puritans, an image of clean-cut, hard-working individuals may be called to mind. While the Puritans may not have been as severe as the contemporary world often seems to believe them to be, there were many subjects of which the Puritans did not approve. One of these subjects was that of youths being “lost” at an early age. Many citizens and pastors, including Jonathan Edwards, would frequently use sermons as a way of frightening other citizens—especially young children—into an intense conversion, and they often used the threat of hellfire to do so. Some might make the claim that the Puritan religion is outdated and has not existed for hundreds of years. The religion itself may no longer exist as such, but there are certainly many contemporary conservative Christian churches that use the same threats of eternal damnation, albeit not necessarily in the same forms of sermons.
When the Puritans first arrived in New England, the “role of conversion…differed from that in England. In the New World, Puritanism was not confronted with the necessity of winning enough converts in order to transform an established church and society” (Brauer 236). From this statement, it would seem that in England, Puritans were using conversions as an attempt to change an already founded religion. Brauer makes clear the idea that the Puritans’ “absolute insistence upon the conversion experience for every believer set the Puritan off against the Church of England” (230). When that failed, the Puritans made their way across the ocean to New England. Once there, there was no immediate need to convert members of that new society, as Puritanism was the most widely practiced religion. Rather, in New England, conversion was viewed
within the context of historic modes of Christian
thought both doctrinal and symbolic … [the] nature of the Puritan conversion … is a profound, overwhelming, totally transforming experience in which a person believes that he has experienced death and rebirth through the powerful working of the Spirit of God. (Brauer 240)
Brauer’s definition of the Puritans’ view of conversion could not be clearer. Interestingly, this definition is applicable to the idea of conversion in contemporary churches as well. David M. Robinson asserts that, to the Puritans, conversion was not an
instantaneous change in the orientation of the soul…
Conversion was instead the product of a long and
disciplined process of struggle and growth, one that required the believer have access to a wide range of ‘means’ - the various institutionalized forms of education, support, and nurture - that was the culmination of a long effort, centered in the soul of the individual but nourished by a much larger spiritual context that the Puritans were hoping to establish more widely. (742-3)
One way to help enforce a deeper “disciplined process” was through the use of sermons, which instilled the fear of hell and the idea that God was supremely unhappy with the colonists.
One of the most well known orators on religion and conversion at that time was Jonathan Edwards. In his famous sermon, “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God,” Edwards reinforces the idea that people are innately insignificant and that everyone’s “foot shall slide in due time” (425), despite any efforts to be moral and upright. He tells his audience that “there is hell’s wide gaping mouth open; and you have nothing to stand upon … it is only the power and mere pleasure of God that holds you up” (430); God does not cast people into hell, rather, He allows people to fall, should He remove His hand. Still later, Edwards states that “[t]he God that holds you over the pit of hell, much as one holds a spider or some loathsome insect over the fire, abhors you, and is dreadfully provoked” (431). This statement is incredibly powerful and intense. Anyone listening to this sermon, whether adult or child, would understandably have been terrified by the images and ideas presented.
The use of sermons and hellacious imagery, such as in “Sinners,” as a means of conversion did not end with adult members of the community; children were also converted at a young age. One specific instance is that of four-year-old Phebe Bartlett. The young girl’s case was recorded by Edwards, who wrote that, “she was greatly affected by the talk of her brother, who had been hopefully converted a little before, at about eleven years of age, and then seriously talked to her about the great things of religion” (“Surprising Conversions” 85). Eleven is also young to go through so intense a religious experience as conversion, especially as defined earlier. However, if one considers that many religious rights of passage occur today at similar ages (i.e. - bat and bar mitzvahs, holy communions, confirmations), the idea of an eleven-year-old’s conversion is less surprising.
Phebe Bartlett’s actions did indeed seem to imply that she was affected by her brother’s conversion. Edwards reports that, at times, she would lock herself in her room to pray, while other times she would sob hysterically, afraid that she and those around her would go to hell upon dying. When she was not praying or sobbing, she would answer her family’s questions regarding her catechism in a blunt manner. At one point, Edwards states that Bartlett told her mother “the kingdom of heaven is come to me!” (86). In Edwards’ account, he tells his readers that the Bartlett family continued to question her and received similar, satisfying responses.
While there does not appear to be any evidence that Phebe Bartlett had heard or been exposed to “Sinners,” Edwards makes his readers aware that he is her pastor, whom she listens to every Sabbath. One may assume that Edwards did not deliver sermons that were as powerful as “Sinners” every week, but thematically, his other sermons may not have been exceedingly different. The use of sermons and the threat of eternal damnation sufficiently frightened Phebe Bartlett into becoming a remarkably changed child, in Edwards’ words. One might ask whether Bartlett was sincerely converted or if she was merely repeating what she heard others say in order to receive praise; it cannot be definitely determined, though both ideas may be argued. Whatever the reason for her conversion, Edwards’ account of her story has made Phebe Bartlett’s case famous.
Bartlett’s story is only one of many “surprising conversions” during the times of the Puritans. However, these extreme conversions did not end with the Puritans. In the contemporary world, there are a number of religions that make many strict requests of their members. They also emphasize the importance of conversion, especially at an early age. These churches are often labeled as “conservative Christian,” a category typically associated with Evangelical churches. One such church is the New Destiny Christian Center of the Assemblies of God (NDCCAD), run by Senior Pastor Keenan Roberts and located in Thornton, Colorado. The NDCCAD does not at all reference the Puritans, yet their goal to frighten members of their community into believing in heaven and hell is very similar to that of the Puritan way. In 1990, Roberts created an alternative to the traditional Halloween haunted house. Calling it “Hell House,” people are guided through hell and shown disturbing scenes; the purpose of such is to convert members of the community, specifically the young, into returning to the church, or joining for the first time if they were previously “non-believers.”
What started as a small event soon grew larger and is now produced around the world. At any given time, one may encounter a Hell House; they are no longer strictly reserved for Halloween. In fact, it can be purchased as an “outreach kit” so it can be performed anywhere at any time. The kit includes a variety of scripted scenes written by Roberts, which depict such events as: “the funeral of a young homosexual male who believed the ‘born gay’ lie and died of AIDS;” a “riveting reenactment of a clinical abortion;” and, a “satanic ritual involving a human sacrifice.” The church’s official website (godestiny.org) claims that Hell House, “average[s] a 33% salvation and rededication decision rate” by the end of the “tour.”
Roberts states that “the method is timely! The message is timeless! Desperate times call for drastic measures!” What Roberts appears to have succeeded in doing is creating another type of sermon, albeit in dramatic form, that would appear to be as, if not more effective than, Edwards’ “Sinners.” While Roberts’ approach is certainly more modern and addresses more contemporary issues, the main theme is the same as Edwards’: “Their foot shall slide in due time.” Roberts seems to believe that the contemporary world is sliding rapidly.
While the church claims a 33% salvation and rededication rate at the end of each performance of “Hell House,” it would seem that not everyone agrees with how seriously Roberts takes himself and his dramatic sermons. “Hell House” was produced at St. Ann’s Warehouse in Brooklyn in 2006. In his New York Times review, theatre critic Ben Brantley writes that, “[p]itched principally at impressionable teenagers, Hell Houses shrewdly play to the selfishness of their visitors. They are not about compassion for the suffering they show but about the possibility of such suffering happening to you.” Even though it was presented as “irony-free” (Brantley), the purpose of the staging was not what Roberts had intended. The St. Ann’s Warehouse production appeared to take advantage of what many viewed as exaggerations within the script as a way of entertaining its tourist as opposed to attempting to save their souls.
Another interesting, but perhaps slightly more vague connection between Puritanism and contemporary religions is the idea that, to the Puritans, those who were of other faiths or perhaps even non-believers were considered absolute heathens. The sermons that were delivered were not necessarily strictly for those who were already members of the church. There was always the distinct possibility that a nonmember could hear or be made aware of the sermons and therefore of the horrors that awaited them in hell. Similarly, Hell Houses make examples of those who have chosen to ignore the message that the House attempts to convey. Using the guise of a haunted house, Hell Houses undoubtedly attract not only members but also curious nonmembers. In attracting nonmembers, one may assume that Pastor Roberts and whoever else utilizes the Hell House are hoping to convert the tourists, thereby saving their souls from the torture they witnessed only moments before in the House.
Puritanical principles are not only associated with Evangelical churches. According to studies published in 1998 by sociologist W. Bradford Wilcox, the “culture of conservative Protestantism remains puritanical - that is, ascetic, strict, and restrained” (797). In Wilcox’s case, the term “puritanical” does not literally refer to the Puritans, but more specifically to characteristics attributed to the Puritans. His studies also reveal that conservative Protestant households “stress the sinful nature of children and the need for discipline” (799), an idea very similar to what one might find in a Puritan household. Wilcox’s study, however, does not seem to support the idea that the Protestant religion attempts to convert their youth by claiming that very nearly everyone is bound to burn in hell. While the concept of hell certainly appears in a countless number of religions, one might find that the methods used to educate about it are arguably less blunt than the Puritans’ and conservative Christians’.
Some might argue that one would be remiss in discussing the Puritans without also discussing the infamous witch-hunts. While there does not appear to be a direct correlation between the hunts and the use of sermons to frighten members of the community into a religious lifestyle, the persecution and execution of alleged witches during the times of the Puritans was arguably as effective as the sermons being presented; both provided the public with examples of what not to do, should one wish to avoid an eternity in hell. Upon seeing what was happening around them, one can guess that the rest of the town’s citizens turned to their faith and prayed harder, not only for themselves, but for their family members as well. Their prayers, however, would not necessarily ask God to guarantee their souls entrance into heaven; rather, they would ask God to protect the citizens’ souls from the evil that seemingly overtook their villages.
Since one did not need physical evidence to accuse another of witchcraft, a large number of people were persecuted. When people were accused of witchcraft in the 1600s, they were also accused of conspiring with the devil, which is, of course, Satanism. This issue has certainly not disappeared, even after four hundred years. Again, if one reviews the scenes included in the Hell House kit, one will find a scene depicting Satanism. While it is not called witchcraft by Pastor Roberts, the basic concept is certainly the same.
The idea of wrongful persecution may be connected in some capacity to some contemporary religions. The discussion on that, however, remains incredibly sensitive and subjective. Of course, the religions that one may accuse of wrongful persecution would disagree with the accusation, just as individuals who are accused of a particular sin would disagree that any sin occurred. For example, if one were to look at the scenes found in the Hell House, one could argue that some of the examples might be considered instances of persecution. Some may argue that the scene in which a young homosexual male dies from AIDS immediately following a scene depicting his marriage to another man could be considered persecution of homosexuals with the use of broad generalizations.
Some might claim that the Puritan religion is a thing of the past. The religion itself may no longer exist, but churches like the New Destiny Christian Center of the Assemblies of God do. Similar churches seem to agree that the threat of hell is an effective way to convert young people, and if one were to view the NDCCAD’s website, their claim and use of statistics would have people believe that the threats are effective. What the website does not make clear is how permanent—or impermanent—their results are and how many people are actually included in the “tours” through Hell House. The same, however, could also be said for Edwards’ conversions. There does not seem to be any evidence stating how permanent the effects of his sermons were; therefore, the reader is left to assume that all conversions were permanent, though the occasional reminder of the horrors of hell may have been necessary.
While only a limited number of examples have been presented, one can see how similar some contemporary conservative Christian churches are to the Puritans, who existed nearly four hundred years earlier. The case of Phebe Bartlett is merely a single example, yet it suggests that the youth was targeted as equally as adults when discussing conversion. The Puritans, especially Edwards, and some contemporary conservative churches certainly seem to have that in common.
One can also see that, despite the lack of any physical religious structure today that is actually called “Puritan,” the Puritans have certainly not vanished. The idea of using speeches and sermons to frighten people into converting or “rededicating” themselves may not have originated with the Puritans, but they certainly utilized the concept with incredibly alleged efficacy. Likewise, a number of contemporary conservative Christian churches, including some Evangelical and Protestant, have adopted and kept alive many of the ideas regarding what constitutes as sin and what constitutes as appropriate punishment for sins; they have also kept alive the use of terrifying images and ideas as a way of attempting to ensure that people will not find themselves in hell after dying. One cannot help but think how proud Jonathan Edwards might be if he could see that his techniques are being utilized and adapted nearly four hundred years after his death, to 33% effectiveness.
Works Cited
Brantley, Ben. “A Guided Tour of Hell, With an Appearance by
Satan.” nytimes.com. 14 Oct. 2006. 3 Dec. 2008
<http://theatre2.nytimes.com/2006/10/14/theater/reviews/14hell.html?e…>.
Brauer, Jerald C. “From Puritanism to Revivalism.” The Journal
of Religion. 58.3 (Jul. 1978): 227-43.
Edwards, Jonathan. “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God.”
The Norton Anthology of American Literature. Ed. Nina Baym. 7th ed. Vol. A. New York: Norton, 2007. 425-36.
---. “Narrative of Surprising Conversions (Rev. Account).” Jonathan Edwards. Ed. Clarence H. Faust and Thomas H. Johnson. New York: Hill and Wang, 1962.
New Destiny Christian Center. 2005-2008. 3 Dec. 2008.
<http://www.godestiny.org/hell_house/HH_kit.cfm>.
Robinson, David M. “The Cultural Dynamics of American
Puritanism.” American Literary History. 6.4 (Winter
1994): 738-55.
Wilcox, W. Bradford. “Conservative Protestant Childrearing:
Authoritarian or Authoritative?” American Sociological
Review. 63.6 (Dec. 1998): 796-809.
